1st Year Psychology

A process which results in chnage in behaviour or behaviour potential.

Where 1 stimulus or event predicts the occurrence of another. (Pavlov)

Acquisition: delay, trace, simultaneous, backward conditioning.

Where CS no longer predicts UCS. CR becomes weaker over time and gradually stops occurring.

Teaching relaxation techniques and proceed through hierarchy of feared objects through imaging. Invivo desensitisation.

Learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences. (Skinner)

Consequences leading to increase of behaviour. (something is added)

Satisfies biological needs. (Eg. Eating, drinking etc.)

Learned. (Eg. Money, praise, attention etc.)

Presentation of reward. (Eg. Feeling more social when drinking, studying hard to get good marks)

Withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus. (Eg. Wear sunnies to remove glare)

Response which allows you to escape from aversive stimulus. (Eg. Use umbrella to escape rain)

Response which allows you to avoid aversive stimulus. (Eg. Wear seatbelt to avoid beeping)

Any stimulus that decreases the occurrence of a behaviour.

Presentation of aversive stimulus. (Eg. Smacking child for misbehaviour, glare when looking into sun)

Withdrawal of pleasant stimulus. (Eg. Withholding a child's allowance, fines when speeding)

Consumption of fatty foods / alcohol, avoidance of exercise, excessive sun exposure.

Delivery of reinforcement after EVERY response. (Eg. Praise patient after each rehab exercise)

Delivery of reinforcement based on NUMBER of responses.

Rewarded after a specific NUMBER of responses.

Rewarded after an average NUMBER of responses.

Delivery of reinforcement based on TIME.

Rewarded after a specific period of TIME.

Rewarded after an average period of TIME.

Learning can occur without direct experience. May not recognise the role of cognition in learning.

Learning new responses by watching the behaviour of another. (Bandura)

Can motivate patients and improve self-efficacy and confidence. (Eg. Observe someone being more sociable or looking better after quitting smoking or after doing regular exercise.

Model is perceived as liked / respected. There are similarities between model and observer. Observer is rewarded for paying attention to model. Observer has CAPACITY to imitate behaviour.

Longitudinal, cross-sectional and sequential design.

Same individuals are observed / tested over time. Used to study individual differences. BUT cohort may shrink over time and can be very costly.

Groups of participants of different ages are observed at the ONE, same time. Used to study behavioural differences related to AGE changes. BUT these changes experienced by each cohort are confounded by social / political conditions of the cohort.

Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal design.

4 stages / schemas. Learning proceeds by assimilation and accommodation. (Piaget)

How new experiences are INCORPORATED into existing schemas. (Eg. Newborn sucking on whatever it sees)

How new experiences cause existing schemas to CHANGE. (Eg. Consequences following new experience causes newborn to know its not safe to suck everything)

1st stage. Infancy-2 y.o. Understand world through motor experience with objects. Object permanence develops. Beginning of symbolic thought.

2nd stage. 2-7 y.o. Most rapid learning occurs here. Symbolic thought using WORDS and IMAGES. Characterised by animism, egocentrism, irreversability, centration.

3rd stage. 7-12 y.o. Can perform basic mental operations of tangible objects. Understands CONSERVATION. Transitive inference ability develops.

4th stage. Adolescence onwards. Able to reason abstract situations. Can form HYPOTHESES and test them in thoughtful way.

Exhaustively researched. 4 stages occur in same order cross-culturally. Each stage must be gone through successfully to proceed to the next stage.

Skills are often acquired earlier than suggested. Development in each stage is inconsistent. Doesn't mention adult cognitive variation. Culture influences cognitive development.

8 stages. Personality develops by overcoming different 'crises'. It is how we view ourselves that we develop our personalities. (Erikson)

1st stage. <1y.o. Basic trust vs mistrust.

2nd stage. 1-2y.o. Autonomy vs self-doubt.

3rd stage. 3-5y.o. Initiative vs guilt.

4th stage. 6-12y.o. Industry/competence vs inferiority.

5th stage. 12-20y.o. Identity vs role confusion. 4 different stages: Identity diffusion, forceclosure, moratorium, identity achievement.

6th stage. 24-40y.o. Intimacy vs isolation.

7th stage. 40-65y.o. Generativity vs stagnation.

8th stage. 65+y.o. Ego integrity vs despair.

Encompasses entire life span. Emphasised conscious processes and social determinants of development. No stage needs to be successfully resolved to move on. Optimistic. Crises are sensitive periods.

A product of its tone and individualistic culture. Sexist, research results equivocal.

Normative influences. (Age-related biological changes, predictable social transition events) Non-normative influences. (unpredictable events)

1. Germinal stage (first 2 weeks after conception) 2. Embryonic stage (until week 8) 3. Foetal stage (week 9 til birth) 4. Birth

Genetic factors, teratogens, iatogenic factors, perinatal factors.

Nature vs nurture. Critical vs sensitive periods. Continuity vs discontinuity. Stability vs change.

States of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension.

Environmental stimuli that 'pull' an organism toward a goal.

Goal-directed behaviour is determined by strength of the person's expectation that particular behaviours will lead to a gorl and by the incentive value the individual places on that goal.

Performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment.

Performing an activity for its own sake

Energy from unconscious motives are disguised and expressed through socially acceptable behaviours.

From bottom: Physiological, safety, belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization.

Autonomy, competence and relatedness play roles in self-determination theory.

The process of starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities. Psychological drives that propel us in a specific direction.

A state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain.

Drugs that act on the CNS to alter mood, cognition, behaviour.

Accelerate action of the CNS. (Eg. Cocaine, caffeine, nicotine etc.)

Slow down activity of the CNS. (Eg. Alcohol, opiates, sedatives, anaesthetics etc.)

Reason? Not all psychoactive drugs fit neatly into just one category. (Eg. Ectasy, MDMA)

In order: alcohol (67.5%), marijuana/cannabis (21.5%), tobacco (11.9%), ectasy (4.7%), Meth (speed), cocaine, inhalants, injected drugs, heroin, any illicit (25.1%)

16-24: 12.7%. Male: 15.5%. Female: 9.8%

Escape from problems, alleviate boredom, feel for confidence, ease physical pain.

Relating to lifestyle aspirations / relationships, practicalities of being a user, physical / psychological effects of drugs.

1. Proximal (refusal skills) 2. Distal (states / behavioural skills. Eg. Social, academic skills) 3. Ultimate (personality traits, intrapersonal characteristics, biological dispositions. Eg. emotional instability, extraversion, impaired cognitive functioning)

Harms from regular use, intoxication and dependence.

Acute effects of drug use. Problems that arise vary depending on drug used, the person using the drug and the circumstances in which the drug was used.

Problems: Increase risk of heart disease, stroke, cancer of the liver, cancer of the throat, both acute and chronic pancreatitis, hypertension.

A condition produced by repeated consumption of a natural / synthetic substance in which the person has become physically and psychologically dependent on the substance.

A state in which the body has adjusted to a substance and has incorporated it into the 'normal' functioning of the body's tissues.

The process by which the body increasingly adapts to a substance and requires larger and larger doses to achieve same effect. At some point, these increases reach a plateau.

Unpleasant physical and psychological symptoms people experience when they discontinue using a substance on which body is physically dependent. Symptoms include anxiety, irritability, intense cravings, hallucinations, nausea, headache and tremors.

Impaire control over substance use, social impairment, risky use, pharmacological criteria.

Drugs responsible for 20% of deaths in AUS. 82% caused by tobacco. 13% caused by alcohol. 4% caused by illicit drugs.

Relies on mortality data, does not take into account harm where death doesn't occur. Calculated by multiplying each death by the number of years the person could have been expected to live.

Combines both fatal and non-fatal outcomes in a single measure.

Alcohol dependence, harmful drug use, road traffic accidents. Each is responsible for 9% of the total cost.

Declines with age. 65+y.o. have less than 1%.

Increased mortality among those with history of drug/alcohol use disorders. May also be driven by marriage, mortgages and children.

Brief intervention (1+ conseling sessions), interventions (counselling sessions in presence of family / friends), motivational conseling (intensive meetings with counselor), specialized treatment (detoxification, rehab), maintenance treatment (psychotherapy, group counseling, self-help).

1. Supply reduction and control. 2. Demand reduction (health promotion) 3. Harm reduction (needle exchange)

Physiological stress reactions, psychological stress reactions, coping with stress, positive effects of stress

Emergency reactions to acute threats (Cannon, Taylor), the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) (Selye)

Major life events, traumatic events, daily hassles.

Appraisal of stress, types of coping responses, modifying coping strategies, social support as a coping resource.

Pattern of specific / nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium or exceed its ability to cope.

An internal / external event or stimulus that induces stress.

Bad stress vs good stress.

Transient state of arousal with typically clear onset / offset patterns.

Continuous state of arousal in which an individual perceives demands as greater than inner / outer resources available for dealing with them.

A sequences of INTERNAL activities triggered when an organism is faced with a threat. Body prepares for combat / struggle / running away to safety. (Walter Cannon)

A response to stressors that is hypothesised to be typical for females. (Shelley Taylor)

The pattern of nonspecific adaptational PHYSIOLOGICAL mechanisms that occurs in response to continuing threat by almost any serious stressor. (Hans Selye)

1. Alarm reactions. (brief periods of bodily arousal in prep for vigorous activity. 2. Resistance (moderate arousal, body can endure and resist effects of stressors) 3. Exhaustion. (if stressor is long lasting or intense)

1. Appraising the challenge. 2. Surveying the alternatives. 3. Weighing alternatives. 4. Deliberating about commitment. 5. Adhering despite negative feedback.

1. Motivational relevence. (extent to which event is relevant to goals) 2. Motivational congruence (extent to which situation is congruent with current goals)

Where relevance is high and congruence is low.

Internal resources (strength, determination). External resources (social support, money).

Loss / threat (sadness, depression, despair, hopelessness), threat (anxiety, fear, anger, jealousy), challenge (worry, hope, confidence).

1. Internal / external accountability. 2. Problem-focused coping potential. 3. Emotion-focused coping potential. 4. Future expectancy concerning situational change.

Changing stressor / one's relationship to it through direct action or problem-solving activities.

Change self through activities that make one feel better, but DO NOT CHANGE the stressor.

Higher the stress, the more likely immune system is low.